What are the levels of autonomy in healthcare systems?

Healthcare autonomy is defined across five levels: Level 0 (no automation — all tasks manual), Level 1 (decision support — system provides alerts, clinician acts), Level 2 (conditional automation — system executes defined protocols within boundaries, e.g. insulin pump auto-correction), Level 3 (high automation — system manages routine pathways independently, clinician supervises exceptions), and Level 4 (full autonomy — theoretical end-to-end care without human intervention). Most health systems currently operate between Levels 1 and 2.